Efficacy of Teaching Strategies

The following essay was submitted as part of the course work for MA Applied Language Studies, at the University of Westmisnter, London (2003)

The Efficacy of Different Language Teaching Strategies

Introduction:

The learning and teaching of a language have been going on for ages. Major developments in the areas of science and technology and revolutions in the areas such as psychology and philosophy and different theories about the nature and function of language and language learning have always influenced the way language is taught and learnt. Another influence has been that of the purpose or aims of teaching language in different periods. In some eras languages were mainly taught for the purpose of only reading and understanding the written form of the target language. In others, it was taught mainly to develop oral skills of learners.

The history of foreign language teaching can be traced back to ancient Greeks, but since the subject of the present study requires discussing the development from Grammar Translation Method (GTM) to present day, no discussion, except their influence on GTM, is being made about the ancient and medieval treatment of language teaching.

The structure of the present study is mainly determined by the methodologies discussed under main headings. Under every heading main considerations include historical and cultural perspectives, aims, techniques, teacher and learner expectations and needs. Their plus points and pitfalls have also been pointed out wherever appropriate.

The summary picks up certain points that the present writer thinks are crucial regarding his decision in choosing or otherwise, certain aspects of these methodologies in his approach towards language teaching.

1. Grammar Translation Method (until late 19^th c.)

Commonly denoted as GTM, this methodology is the oldest one and is still used in some parts of the world. It mainly derives from the way ancient and medieval scholars and language teachers treated the subject. In ancient Greece, as well as in Rome, scholars commonly held the view that a particular language or a variety of a language is the standard one and that all other languages or their varieties are deviations from it. (David Crystal 1992). This view was common during middle ages. Roger Ascham in his book The School Master (1570) talks about the greatness of Latin language. Such a view about language had a major influence on the way language was analysed and taught.

Later on when the subject of teaching a language became a bit formal in 19^th century due to certain socio-political demands, the classical view heavily influenced the language teaching methodologies and approaches. The model that the language scholars or teacher had in front of them was of Latin language. They viewed and categorised English language in the framework of Latin and classified its grammar, structure and vocabulary according to the Latin model, not keeping into account the fact that English was a totally different language. Secondly in medieval times, Latin was mainly written language and very few colloquial form of classic Latin existed. When people studied Latin, they studied the written Latin only. This resulted in studying only the written form of English language. Another reason that guided towards this result was the ancient and medieval belief in the supremacy of written language. They believed that the right kind of language is written language only and that if somebody wants to learn a language (as one has to read and understand the written literature in the target language) one should study only the written form of target language. All this heavily influenced the approach towards language teaching in the early part of 19^th century and continued to exert its influence until it was started to be challenged in early 20^th century.

The characteristic features of this methodology include:

- foreign language study is seen as a mental discipline

- the basic approach is to analyse and study the grammatical rules of the language

- the order of teaching language roughly matches that of teaching Latin in medieval ages

- it is the written language that is being taught, spoken utterances are of almost no importance

- a typical approach will be to present the rules of grammar, illustrate them with examples, then inviting students to practice these in close drills

- translation from and into the target language is very important as students often practice this in their drills

- paradigms, memorisation of rules and their application in translation exercises are the kind of activities that go on in the class

- most of the explanations and conversations (if any) in the class go in L1, rules of L2 are explained in L1 and their similar in L1 are presented to the learners

- teaching of vocabulary is also important as often there are vocabulary lists along with meanings in L1

- There are no discussion activities and students mostly listen passively

- Teacher is at the centre of the class and is an authoritative figure

- Textbook commonly contains formal essays, articles and occasionally poems which are translated and explained before the learners in L1

- The focus is on accuracy

It is apparent that the focus of GTM is to develop only the literary skills. So students, who have got excellent knowledge of the target grammar along with having sufficient vocabulary, may not necessarily be able to verbally communicate in an effective way. On the other hand without a sound knowledge of the grammatical basis of the language it can be argued that the learner may be able to perform some basic communicative tasks, which will be appropriate in simple situations but which will be found wanting for any kind of sophisticated linguistic tasks.

2. The Direct Method (late 19^th- early 20^th Century)

Also known as Reform Method / Phonetical Method / Anti-grammatical Method, this method was the product of reform movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when linguists criticized the rigidity of GTM and its negligence of oral skills. People like Henry Sweet of England, Wilhel Vietor of Germany and Paul Passy of France focused on the scientific approaches in language teaching and gave adequate importance to developing oral skills in the learners. They rejected the teaching of modern languages through grammatical paradigms, specimen sentences, and word lists and wanted to base teaching directly on speech and to apply the results of developments in phonetics in their courses so as to ensure sound pronunciation from the start. They adopted the principles of association, visualization, and learning through senses. This lead to the use of realia.

The main features of Direct Method can be summed up as

- Knowing a language was being able to speak it! Primacy of spoken word.

- Laid great stress on correct pronunciation and target language from outset. Advocated teaching of oral skills at expense of every traditional aim of language teaching.

- Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language, and so mother tongue (MT) has no place in foreign language lesson. (Baby never relies on another language to learn its first language).

- Printed word must be kept away from second language learner for as long as possible (same as first language learner, who doesn't use printed word until he has got good grasp of speech).

- The written word / writing should be delayed till the printed word (reading) has been introduced

- The learning of grammar/ translating skills should be avoided because they involve the application of the MT

- lots of use oral interaction

- spontaneous use of language

- no translation

- little, if any, analysis of grammatical rules.

- L2 as the language of communication in the classroom

- Teaching of only everyday vocabulary

- Teaching concrete vocabulary through realia, while abstract vocabulary via association of ideas (The English Club-online)

- Importance of correct pronunciation

- There is a lot of student-teacher and student-student interaction in the form of questions and answers to encourage conversation and keep students immersed in the spoken language.

The major fallacy of Direct Method was the belief that second language learning is the same as first language acquisition. Recent research in the area confirms that both are significantly different and have their own advantages and limitations. The method may come up with excellent results with small classes but for bigger classis these activities may not be very suitable. It may also be better suited for debutants than to more advanced learners (Capes-online). However it is still useful when a teacher is dealing with a class in which the pupils do not possess a common L1.

3. Audio Lingual Method (1940-1950)

A product of Second World War when American soldiers needed to be proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies alike, this method took advantage of developments in the area of audio technology. The theory came from Structural Linguistics and Behavioural Psychology. Just like Direct Method L2 was taught without any reference to L1. Based on the assumption that language is a kind of acquired behaviour, stimulus response techniques were used. Patterned drills which are mostly aural-oral precede the explanation of grammar. This methodology followed the natural sequence Listening→Speaking→Reading→Writing. The following points sum up the characteristics of the method:

- Dependence on mimicry and memorisation of set phrases

- Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills,

- No grammatical explanation (grammar through induction)

- Learning vocabulary in context

- Use of tapes and visual aids

- Focus on pronunciation

- Immediate reinforcement of correct responses

Since the method was originally designed for soldiers, it had its own limitations. The extensive use of technical resources such as cassettes players may not be very helpful in large size classrooms. Since the basic method of teaching is repetition, speech is standardised and pupils may turn into parrots who can reproduce many things but find it very difficult to create anything new or spontaneous.

The Cognitive Approach or The ‘Designer’ Methods (1960s)

The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics drew the attention towards ‘deep structure’ and the generative aspect of language, while the psychologists took account of affective and interpersonal nature of learning. This resulted in the Designer Methods; also know as humanistic approaches, which tried to exploit the psychological factors in language learning. Two Methods, Silent Way and Suggestopedia, are mainly influenced from this school of thought.

4. The Silent Way

The Silent Way originated in the early 1970s and was the brainchild of Caleb Gattegno. The three basic beliefs of the approach are that learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than remembers and repeats, that learning is aided by physical objects, and that problem solving is central to learning.

Silent Way adopts highly structural approach, with language taught through sentences in a sequence based on grammatical complexity, described by some as a ‘building-block’ approach. The learner is helped to build on something that he already knows and is helped to move to the unknown. Silence is a tool to develop learners’ autonomy. The teacher speaks only when it is necessary. Students help each other and themselves. Sound colour chart, Fidel chart, teacher’s silence, correction by peers, gestures that encourage student’s self-correction and word chart are some of the key techniques used in this method.

The apparent lack of real communication between the teacher and the students has been criticized by various language course designers, arguing that it is difficult to take the approach beyond very basics of the language. Earl W. Stevick, has described the role of the teacher in Silent Way as “Teach, test, get out of the way”. [*]

5. Suggestopedia

Another product of cognitive approach was the development of a totally revolutionary and new methodology, promising great results if brain power and inner capacities of the learners are used. Lozanov, the founder of the methodology, believed that learners are capable of learning much more than is commonly thought. He studied the Soviet psychological research on yoga and extrasensory perception, and devised a learning method which used relaxation as a means of retaining new knowledge and material. Music plays a crucial role in this methodology, and unlike other methods and approaches, there is no apparent theory of language in Suggestopedia and no obvious order in which language items are presented.

Luzanov suggested the used of extended dialogues, accompanied by vocabulary lists and important grammatical points. In most situations these dialogues were read by teacher with exaggerated rhythm and intonation, in order to fit in, with the classical music that went in the background. Later on his (Luzanov’s) followers tried to present complex vocabulary, readings, role plays and drama with classical music in the background and students sitting in comfortable seats. In this way students became “Suggestible.”

Although Suggestopedia offered great insights into the ‘superlearning’ powers of brains, but it had its own limitations. Not all educational establishments can afford the kind of classroom environment and the technology that the method requests. Further, Beethoven or Mozart may well seem ridiculous to many people.

6. Community Language Learning (1976)

Based on Charles A. Curran’s Counselling-learning Approach, Community language Learning Method treats learners as ‘whole persons.’ The key element of the approach is that ‘any learning situation is threatening to students.’ So in order to reduce the anxiety of

- being in the classroom,

- being learning something,

- being observed by the teacher,

- making mistakes (the fear)

this methodology advocates that the teachers should work as language counsellors. Curran said that the language counsellor would not behave like a psychologist but as someone who understands the struggle learners go through while learning a foreign language. In order to develop non-defensive learning on the part of learners:

- they are informed about the activity they would undertake

- the teacher remains passive and works as ‘knower’ or ‘counsellor’

- co-operation not competition is encouraged

- learners’ errors are politely repeated correctly by the teacher in a non-threatening way

- they are encouraged to develop their own syllabus and thus their own learning materials

Common activities that go in this technique include Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening, and Free conversation. Most of the time learners learn while working in community (classroom community) with others trying to achieve similar goals (of language learning). They are expected to listen attentively to the knower, to freely provide meanings they wish to express, to repeat target utterances without hesitation, to support fellow members of the community, to report deep inner feelings and frustrations as well as joy and pleasure, and to become counselors to other learners.

7. Total Physical Response (1974)

Total Physical Response is based on the coordination of speech and action. It was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California. It is linked to the ‘trace theory of memory’, which holds that the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be. TPR develops (or tries to develop) learners’ comprehension before speaking. Its theory revolves around these points [†]

- Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes.

- Listening should be developed before speaking.

- Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that also.

- Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it

- Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns

- Delaying speech reduces stress

- Using action-based drills in the imperative form

These ‘learning from physical responses to language’ and ‘action-based drills’ are the main force behind the usual activities involving commands and directions given exclusively in L2, for the first ten hours of instructions

8. The LAMP method (1976)

‘Language Acquisition Made Practical’ is the title of a book by Thomas and Elizabeth Brewster in 1976. It is not a well known methodology as it is not widely used in public education, but it has been popular among expatriates learning languages to work in developing countries. The methodology is derived from Audiolingual Method and is based on courses taught at the Toronto Institute of Linguistics. Two other main influences on this methodology have been the work of Donald Larson and William Smalley.

Although the methodology takes a communicative view of language as principally a social activity, there is also quite a lot of structural view represented. Its theory of learning can be summarized by the aphorism "Learn a little and use it a lot". The actual methodology used is that of audiolingualism, but the emphasis is on self-directed learning. Here are some of the important principles:

- You can learn language by interacting with ordinary people in everyday encounters

- Language is more of a social activity than an academic activity and so should be learned in social situations

- Learners should bond emotionally with members of the speech community and culture

- Learners should elicit texts about things they want to say, learn them, and then go out and use their texts with a regular route of native speakers of the language.

This methodology may come up with astonishing results but the major demerit is its use in academic institutions outside the target language community.

9. The Natural Approach

The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting in 1977. It came to have a wide influence in language teaching in the United States and around the world. The method is based on the communicative view of language[‡] with particular emphasis on language as a set of messages that can be understood. Its main propositions include:

- Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is the only way competence in a second language occurs. (The acquisition/learning hypothesis)

- Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks or repairs the output of what has been acquired. (The monitor hypothesis)

- Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it does little good to try to learn them in another order. (The natural order hypothesis).

- People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly beyond their current competence. (The input hypothesis)

- The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The affective filter hypothesis)

The Natural Approach adopts techniques and activities from different sources but uses them to provide comprehensible input. Group techniques are similar to Communicative Language Teaching.

10. Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching started in the UK in the 1960s. It was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistis, such as Firth and Halliday, as well as American sociolinguists, such as Hymes , Gumperz and Labov and the writings of Austin and Searle on speech acts. The methodology is also based on the functional or communicative view of language[§]. Although not much could be found about the ‘theory of learning’ behind this methodology, the main principles that go with it include:

- activities that involve real communication promote learning

- activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning

- language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning

The methodology aims to make students use language as a means to express values and judgments. It is quite open in the sense that learners will learn to express the functions that best meet their own communication needs. It often uses a functional-notional syllabus. Yalden[**] has classified a number of communicative syllabus types. They include almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication, which have broadly been divided into two categories which are:

- functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve communication, and

- social interaction activities: such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays

Summary and Conclusion

Most of the teaching techniques described may seem perfect for one type of students, in one part of the world, but they are not universally and wholly applicable as some parts of them may not be suitable for everybody. Picking up any of these methodologies wholly and then applying it in a classroom not considering anything else will be a foolish idea. Personally speaking, in choosing any of these methodologies following considerations are of vital importance:

- aims of teaching language; the target language

- type of learners: their age groups, interests, demands and aims, their previous knowledge of target language (for example, if they are beginners and young children, TPR may be suitable in teaching basis actions and vocabulary, but for an adult class, which has got certain knowledge of target language, certain aspects of TPR may appear ridiculous.

- availability or otherwise of resources: like electronic resources such as audio/video players, or like sofas and comfortable armchairs (as in Suggestopedia);

- time available; total time, individual session time, frequency of teaching sessions, do learners get any time to practice language outside the class?

- the size of classroom: the number of students, the physical size of the class;

- the social attitude of learners: towards teachers and teaching, and their view of target language

After considering and analysing all these, the teacher will be in a much better position to choose from any of the methodologies. Under no circumstances can one say that a methodology is perfect in itself. The present writer may think Natural Approach and Communicative Approach much better as compared to because they have a sound qualitative and quantitative research in the area to back them up, but the final decision in choosing any methodology is wholly dependent on the consideration given above. In fact an eclectic approach is most likely where certain features catering the special needs of learners will be picked from all (or any) of these methodologist and a personal strategy will be developed.

Bibliography

Crystal, David, 1941- Introducing linguistics, Penguin English linguistics, London: Penguin Books, 1992

Ellis, Rod, Instructed Second Language Acquisition, Basil Blackwell, 1990

Roger T. Bell, An Introduction to Applied Linguistics, Batsford Academic Ltd, 1981

The History of English Language Teaching. S. Kathleen Kitao , Kenji Kitao

www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/visitors/kenji/kitao/tesl-his.htm

The English Club-online

www.englishclub.net/articles/the _changing_winds.htm

TPR- What is TPR

http://www.tpr-world.com/index.html

Total Physical Response, By Rashanna Edwards

http://www.onid.orst.edu/~kelleyr/Total%20Physical%20Response_files/frame.htm#slide0001.htm

California State University San Marcos

http://www.csusm.edu/languages/llcinfo/methodology/method.htm

Summer Institute of Linguistics

www.sil.org

University of Toronto English Library

http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/

NCELA (The National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs)

http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/index.htm

One Stop English

www.onestopenglish.com

(some other web sources as well)

[*] Tim Bowen, WHAT IS SILENT WAY? www.onestopenglish.com

[†] Total Physical Response, By Rashanna Edwards

http://www.onid.orst.edu/~kelleyr/Total%20Physical%20Response_files/frame.htm#slide0001.htm

[‡] The communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics

[§] The communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics

[**] see Yalden, Janice. 1987. The communicative syllabus: Evolution, design and implementation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.